Antarctic Treaty System and India's Antarctic Programme

Antarctica is the icy continent around the South Pole. No single country governs it. Instead, it is managed by a set of international agreements called the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS). The main idea is simple: Antarctica must be used only for peace and science, and not for war, weapons or mining. India has been part of this system since 1983 and runs permanent research stations there.

Why does it exist?

In the early 20th century, seven countries claimed slices of Antarctica, and some of these claims overlapped. During the Cold War, many feared the continent could become a place for military bases or nuclear tests. Think of it like a large shared playground that several families say they own. Instead of fighting, they agree on common rules: nobody builds a fence, and everyone uses it only for learning. The treaty does this for Antarctica.

Where did it come from?

Many countries did joint scientific work in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (1957-58). This good experience led to the Antarctic Treaty, signed in Washington, D.C. on 1 December 1959 by 12 countries. It came into force on 23 June 1961. The 12 original signatories were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States.

What does the 1959 treaty say?

Its main rules are:

• Antarctica shall be used only for peaceful purposes. Military bases, military exercises and weapons testing are banned (Article I).
• There is freedom of scientific research, and countries must share their plans and results (Articles II and III).
• Territorial claims are frozen (Article IV). The treaty does not accept or reject old claims, and no new claim can be made while it is in force.
• Nuclear explosions and dumping of radioactive waste are banned (Article V). This made Antarctica the first nuclear-weapon-free zone set up by a treaty.
• Any member can inspect the stations and equipment of other members at any time (Article VII).
• The treaty covers the area south of 60° South latitude, including ice shelves (Article VI).

Who claims parts of Antarctica?

Seven countries have territorial claims: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom. The claims of Argentina, Chile and the UK overlap in the Antarctic Peninsula. Chile claims the sector between 53° West and 90° West. Its southern city of Punta Arenas is a key gateway, and many countries' Antarctic expeditions pass through it. The United States and Russia have made no claim but keep the right to make one.

How is it governed?

The members meet every year at the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). Decisions are taken by consensus (everyone must agree). Only Consultative Parties can vote. A country becomes a Consultative Party either by being an original signatory or by doing "substantial scientific research" in Antarctica, such as running a research station. The Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, set up in 2004, is in Buenos Aires, Argentina. As of 2026, the treaty has 58 parties, of which 29 are Consultative Parties.

The wider "System"

The ATS is more than one treaty. It includes three more agreements:

• Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS), 1972.
• Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), 1980. It protects fish, krill and other sea life in the Southern Ocean.
• Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid Protocol), 1991. It was adopted on 4 October 1991 and came into force on 14 January 1998. It calls Antarctica a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science". Its Article 7 bans all mining, except for scientific research. It also set up the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP).

India in Antarctica

India's first scientific expedition, a 21-member team led by Dr S.Z. Qasim, left Goa on 6 December 1981 and landed in Antarctica on 9 January 1982. India then built its research stations:

• Dakshin Gangotri (1983): India's first station. It was later buried under ice and decommissioned; it now serves as a supply base.
• Maitri (1989): In the Schirmacher Oasis, still working.
• Bharati (2012): In the Larsemann Hills, about 3,000 km east of Maitri, still working.
• Maitri II: A new, greener station planned to replace the old Maitri.

India signed (acceded to) the Antarctic Treaty on 19 August 1983 and became a Consultative Party on 12 September 1983. The programme is run by the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) in Goa, under the Ministry of Earth Sciences. NCPOR was set up in 1998 (then called NCAOR). India hosted the 46th ATCM and the 26th CEP meeting in Kochi, Kerala, from 20 to 30 May 2024.

The Indian Antarctic Act, 2022

Parliament passed this law in 2022 to apply Indian law to Indian stations and expeditions in Antarctica. It set up a Committee on Antarctic Governance and Environmental Protection, chaired by the Secretary of the Ministry of Earth Sciences. Any Indian expedition or person needs a permit from this committee. The Act bans nuclear explosions, dumping of radioactive waste, bringing non-sterile soil and releasing harmful waste into the sea.

A nuclear explosion is punishable with at least 20 years' imprisonment (can extend to life) and a fine of at least ₹50 crore. Mining for minerals without a permit can bring up to seven years in jail.

Why does Antarctica matter to India?

Antarctica holds about 90% of the world's ice. Studying it helps scientists understand climate change, sea-level rise and even the Indian monsoon. Rocks in Antarctica also match rocks in India, because both were once part of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana. Research there helps India's geology too.

Commonly confused concepts

• Antarctic vs Arctic: Antarctica is a continent (land covered by ice) around the South Pole, governed by the Antarctic Treaty. The Arctic is mostly a frozen ocean around the North Pole, surrounded by the land of eight countries. It has no single treaty; the Arctic Council (set up in 1996) is a forum where India is an Observer (since 2013). India's Arctic station is Himadri (2008) at Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, Norway.
• Signatory vs Consultative Party: Joining the treaty makes a country a party. Only Consultative Parties vote at the ATCM.
• Mining ban "ending in 2048": This is a common myth. After 2048, any member can ask for a review conference. But the ban stays unless a new mining rule set is agreed and in force. It does not expire on its own.
• Dakshin Gangotri (Antarctica) vs Gangotri (Uttarakhand): The station is named after the source of the Ganga, but it is in Antarctica.

Issues, criticism and the way forward

• Frozen, not solved: Territorial claims are only frozen. If resources become valuable, disputes could return.
• Pressure for resources: Some fear that interest in minerals, oil and krill fishing will grow as technology improves.
• Climate change: Melting ice shelves raise sea levels, which threatens coastal countries like India.
• Tourism: More tourists bring pollution and risk to wildlife; the 46th ATCM in Kochi discussed a framework for tourism.
• Consensus is slow: Because every Consultative Party must agree, new marine protected areas under CCAMLR have taken years to approve.
• Way forward: Experts suggest stronger rules on tourism and fishing, more joint scientific research, and greener stations like Maitri II.

Concepts to Know

• Accede / accession: To join a treaty after it has already been signed by the original members.
• Consensus: A decision is taken only when no member objects. It is different from voting by majority.
• Krill: Tiny shrimp-like sea animals. They are the main food of whales, seals and penguins in the Southern Ocean.
• Gondwana: A huge ancient landmass that included India, Antarctica, Africa, South America and Australia. It broke apart over millions of years.
• Ice shelf: A thick floating sheet of ice attached to land, pushed out over the sea by glaciers.