Daily Quiz | On history of the treaties and territory of Antarctica

23 June 2026 marks the 65th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty entering into force (23 June 1961), making it one of the longest-standing international envir...

What Happened

23 June 2026 marks the 65th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty entering into force (23 June 1961), making it one of the longest-standing international environmental governance frameworks.
The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) — comprising the original 1959 treaty, the 1991 Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, and several associated conventions — governs a continent with no indigenous human population and no sovereign claimant recognised by most states.
India has been an active participant in Antarctic governance since 1983 and currently operates two active research stations (Maitri and Bharati) on the continent; a third station (Maitri II) is under planning.
India enacted the Indian Antarctic Act, 2022 — a comprehensive domestic law to operationalise its international obligations under the ATS, regulate all Indian activities in Antarctica, and protect the Antarctic environment.

Static Topic Bridges

The Antarctic Treaty (1959) — Foundational Framework

The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington D.C. on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961. It was the first major arms control and international environmental governance agreement of the post-War era, establishing Antarctica as a continent dedicated to peaceful purposes and international scientific cooperation.

Original signatories (12 countries): Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States — all of whom had conducted significant scientific activity in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) 1957–58.
Key provisions:
Article I: Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only; military activities, weapons tests (including nuclear), and military manoeuvres are prohibited.
Article II: Freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue.
Article III: Scientific programmes, data, and personnel shall be freely exchanged.
Article V: Nuclear explosions and disposal of radioactive waste in Antarctica are prohibited.
Article VII: Treaty parties have the right to designate observers who have freedom of access to all areas and stations; advance notice must be given of expeditions.
Article IV: No acts or activities taking place while the Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting, or denying a territorial claim; no new claims or enlargement of existing claims can be made while the Treaty is in force. (Seven countries had made prior territorial claims: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, UK — some overlapping.)
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs) are the primary decision-making mechanism; held annually.
There are two categories of parties: Consultative Parties (29 countries with full voting rights, including India) and Non-Consultative Parties (25 countries with observer status only).

Connection to this news: The 65th anniversary of the Treaty entering into force highlights the durability of a governance framework negotiated at the height of the Cold War — demonstrating that international cooperation can override geopolitical rivalry when there is a convergence of scientific and environmental interest.

Protocol on Environmental Protection — Madrid Protocol (1991)

The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, signed in Madrid on 4 October 1991 and entered into force on 14 January 1998, represents the most comprehensive environmental protection framework for any single geographic area on Earth. It designates Antarctica as a "natural reserve, devoted to peace and science."

Article 7 of the Madrid Protocol: unambiguously prohibits any activity related to mineral resources, other than scientific research. The mining prohibition has no sunset clause; modifying it requires unanimous agreement among all Consultative Parties plus a legally binding implementation mechanism.
The Protocol has six Annexes (Annexes I–VI):
Annex I: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) — all activities must undergo EIA; three levels: preliminary stage, Initial Environmental Evaluation (IEE), and Comprehensive Environmental Evaluation (CEE) for significant impacts.
Annex II: Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora — prohibits harmful interference with native species; regulates introduction of non-native species.
Annex III: Waste Disposal and Waste Management — mandates minimisation and removal of waste; open burning of waste prohibited since 1998.
Annex IV: Prevention of Marine Pollution — implements MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) standards.
Annex V: Area Protection and Management — establishes Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ASPAs) and Antarctic Specially Managed Areas (ASMAs).
Annex VI: Liability Arising from Environmental Emergencies — adopted as Measure 1 (2005); not yet in force (requires ratification by all Consultative Parties); addresses operator liability for environmental damage.
The Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP) was established under the Protocol to advise the ATCM on environmental matters; meets annually alongside the ATCM.

Connection to this news: The Madrid Protocol's absolute mining prohibition (Article 7) and its EIA requirement (Annex I) are among the most testable facts in UPSC's treatment of the Antarctic Treaty System, particularly in the context of growing interest in Antarctica's potential mineral resources as global demand for rare earth elements and strategic minerals rises.

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) — 1980

Beyond the core Antarctic Treaty and the Madrid Protocol, the ATS encompasses several associated instruments. CCAMLR is among the most significant for its practical governance of marine ecosystems.

CCAMLR (pronounced "cam-lar"): adopted 20 May 1980; entered into force 7 April 1982; headquartered in Hobart, Australia.
Governs the conservation and management of marine living resources (krill, fish, seabirds, seals) in the Southern Ocean, defined as south of the Antarctic Convergence (the natural boundary where cold Antarctic waters meet warmer sub-Antarctic waters).
Uses an "ecosystem approach" to management — sets catch limits based on ecosystem-level impacts, not just target species sustainability; krill harvesting is particularly regulated as krill forms the base of the Antarctic food web.
India is a member of CCAMLR Commission.
Other ATS instruments: Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS, 1972); Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP, 2001, not strictly an ATS instrument but covers overlapping geography).

Connection to this news: CCAMLR's ecosystem-based approach to managing the Southern Ocean fisheries is a model cited in international environmental law discussions and is potentially testable in UPSC GS2/GS3 questions about marine governance.

India's Antarctic Programme and Stations

India's engagement with Antarctica began in 1981 when the First Indian Antarctic Expedition set sail, led by Dr. S.Z. Qasim. India joined the Antarctic Treaty on 19 August 1983 and received Consultative Party status on 12 September 1983 — the same year it established its first research station.

Dakshin Gangotri (1983): India's first Antarctic research station; located on the continental ice shelf in Central Dronning Maud Land; became operational in January 1983; decommissioned in 1990 after being progressively buried by ice accumulation; now serves as a supply base rather than a research station.
Maitri (1989): India's second and currently active year-round research station; located on a rocky outcrop of the Schirmacher Oasis (an ice-free area) in Central Dronning Maud Land at approximately 70°45'S, 11°44'E; altitude ~130 m above sea level; operational year-round; conducts research in geology, glaciology, meteorology, biology, and medicine.
Bharati (2012): India's third and newest research station; located at Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica, at approximately 69°S, 76°E; commissioned in March 2012; constructed from 134 prefabricated shipping containers (modular construction); focuses on ocean sciences, atmospheric sciences, and earth sciences; operational in summer and being made year-round capable.
Maitri II: India has announced plans for a next-generation replacement for Maitri, with modern sustainability features; design and planning stage as of 2026.
National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Goa (under Ministry of Earth Sciences): the nodal agency for coordinating all Indian Antarctic expeditions and research.

Connection to this news: India's 43-year continuous engagement in Antarctica (1983–2026) and its two active stations give India Consultative Party standing, which includes voting rights at ATCMs — making India a governance participant, not merely a scientific observer, in the world's most internationally governed landmass.

Indian Antarctic Act, 2022 — Domestic Legal Framework

The Indian Antarctic Act, 2022 (passed by Parliament in August 2022) is India's first comprehensive domestic legislation for Antarctic activities. It operationalises India's obligations under the Antarctic Treaty, the Madrid Protocol, and CCAMLR in Indian law.

The Act applies to all Indian expeditions to Antarctica, all Indian citizens and persons on Indian ships/aircraft in Antarctica, and all activities conducted by India in the Antarctic Treaty Area.
Key provisions:
Establishes a "permit" system for any Indian activity in Antarctica — no Indian expedition, tourist visit, or commercial activity can proceed without a permit from the competent authority (Ministry of Earth Sciences).
Prohibits mining and mineral prospecting in accordance with Article 7 of the Madrid Protocol.
Prohibits introduction of non-indigenous species, detachment of living organisms, and activities likely to cause damage to the Antarctic environment.
Establishes inspection mechanisms and penalties for violations — making non-compliance with the Madrid Protocol a punishable offence under Indian law.
Creates a framework for regulating Indian tourists visiting Antarctica (a growing concern as Antarctic tourism expands).
The Act makes India one of a select group of countries with comprehensive domestic Antarctic legislation (Australia, New Zealand, UK, and others had such legislation earlier).
India hosted the 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM 46) in Kochi in 2024 — the first time an ATCM was held in India.

Connection to this news: The Indian Antarctic Act, 2022 transforms India's international treaty obligations into enforceable domestic law, completing the legal architecture that began with India's accession to the Antarctic Treaty in 1983. It is likely to be a UPSC prelims MCQ target given it is a recent Act with clear international linkages.

Key Facts & Data

Antarctic Treaty signed: 1 December 1959 (Washington D.C.)
Antarctic Treaty entered into force: 23 June 1961
Original signatories: 12 countries (IGY participants)
Current Consultative Parties: 29 (including India)
Current Non-Consultative Parties: 25 (total ATS membership: 54 countries)
Countries with prior territorial claims (7): Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, UK
India joined Antarctic Treaty: 19 August 1983; received Consultative Party status: 12 September 1983
Dakshin Gangotri: established 1983; decommissioned 1990 (buried by ice); now a supply base
Maitri: established 1989; location — Schirmacher Oasis, Central Dronning Maud Land; year-round active
Bharati: established March 2012; location — Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica; 134 shipping containers
Madrid Protocol: signed 4 October 1991; entered into force 14 January 1998
Madrid Protocol Article 7: absolute prohibition on mining activity in Antarctica
Madrid Protocol Annex VI (Liability): adopted 2005; NOT yet in force
Indian Antarctic Act: passed 2022 (Parliament); nodal ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences
NCPOR (National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research): Goa; nodal agency for Indian Antarctic expeditions
CCAMLR: adopted 1980; entered into force 1982; headquartered in Hobart, Australia
46th ATCM: hosted by India in Kochi, 2024 — first ATCM on Indian soil
First Indian Antarctic Expedition: 1981 (led by Dr. S.Z. Qasim)