Insurgency in Northeast India

Northeast India has eight states: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Since India's independence, many armed groups in this region have fought against the government. Some wanted a separate country, some wanted a separate state, and some wanted more power for their own tribe or community. This long struggle is called insurgency. Over the decades, the government has handled it with a mix of security action (like AFSPA) and talks, which often end in written peace accords.

Why did insurgency start here?

Several reasons came together:

• Geography and isolation: The Northeast is joined to the rest of India only by the narrow Siliguri Corridor (the "Chicken's Neck"), about 20 to 22 km wide at its narrowest [Unverified]. Many people felt far from Delhi, both physically and emotionally.
• Identity: The region has hundreds of tribes, each with its own language, customs and history. Many groups feared losing their identity, land and culture.
• Migration: Large-scale migration, especially from what is now Bangladesh, made local people fear becoming a minority in their own land. This was a key reason for the Assam Movement (1979 to 1985).
• Underdevelopment: Poor roads, few industries and few jobs left young people angry, which armed groups used to recruit them.
• Open borders: The region shares borders with China, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal. Hilly, forested borders let armed groups hide and set up camps in neighbouring countries.

How did it begin in Nagaland?

Naga insurgency is the oldest in India. The Naga National Council (NNC), led by A. Z. Phizo, claimed that Nagas were never part of India. On 16 May 1951, the NNC held its own "plebiscite" (a vote by the people on one question), in which it claimed almost all Nagas voted for independence. Armed rebellion followed in the 1950s.

In 1963, Nagaland became a separate state. Later, Article 371A (added by the 13th Amendment, 1962) gave Nagaland special protection for its religious and social practices, customary law and ownership of land.

The Naga story after that

In the Shillong Accord of 11 November 1975, a section of the NNC agreed to accept the Constitution and give up arms. Groups who rejected it formed the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) on 31 January 1980, led by Isak Chishi Swu, Thuingaleng Muivah and S. S. Khaplang. In 1988, it split into:

• NSCN (IM): led by Isak and Muivah, the largest Naga group today.
• NSCN (K): led by Khaplang, with a strong base in Myanmar.

The NSCN (IM) signed a ceasefire with the Centre in 1997. After more than 80 rounds of talks, a Framework Agreement was signed on 3 August 2015. A final settlement is still pending. The main sticking points are the NSCN (IM)'s demand for a separate Naga flag and constitution, and its idea of "Nagalim" (Greater Nagaland), which would include Naga areas of Manipur, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Those states oppose any change to their borders.

Insurgency in other states

Each state has its own story:

• Mizoram: The Mizo National Front (MNF), led by Laldenga, rebelled in 1966 after the government's poor response to a famine. The Mizo Accord of 30 June 1986 ended it. Mizoram became a full state in 1987. It is often called the most successful peace accord in India, because the rebels joined normal politics and peace has held since.
• Assam: The United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA), formed in 1979, wanted a sovereign Assam. Bodo groups wanted a separate Bodoland, and Karbi and Dimasa groups wanted their own areas.
• Manipur: Valley-based groups (mostly Meitei) such as the United National Liberation Front (UNLF) wanted Manipur to be independent. Hill-based Naga and Kuki groups had their own demands. From 3 May 2023, Manipur also saw serious ethnic violence between the Meitei and Kuki-Zo communities. This was different from classic insurgency: it was a clash between two communities, with armed groups on both sides.
• Tripura: Groups such as the National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT) and the All Tripura Tiger Force (ATTF) fought over tribal land lost to settlers.
• Arunachal Pradesh: It has no big local insurgency. But its three eastern districts (Tirap, Changlang and Longding) are used as transit routes by Naga and Assamese groups moving to and from Myanmar.

How does the government respond?

Think of it like a doctor who gives both strong medicine and physiotherapy. The government uses three tools together:

1. Security action: The Army, Assam Rifles and central police forces work under laws like AFSPA and the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 (UAPA), under which many groups are banned.
2. Ceasefires and Suspension of Operations (SoO): Fighting is paused while talks go on. Armed cadres live in designated camps. Several Kuki groups in Manipur have had SoO agreements.
3. Peace accords and development: Once talks succeed, the government signs a Memorandum of Settlement (MoS). It usually gives more self-rule (often through the Sixth Schedule or a special council), a money package, and help for surrendered cadres to start a new life.

Major recent peace accords (all verified from the Ministry of Home Affairs)

• NLFT (SD) agreement: 10 August 2019, Tripura.
• Bru-Reang agreement: 16 January 2020. Permanent settlement of Bru (Reang) families, who had fled Mizoram, in Tripura, with a package of about ₹661 crore.
• Bodo Accord: 27 January 2020, Assam. Over 4,800 cadres of NDFB groups gave up violence. It led to the Bodoland Territorial Region.
• Karbi Anglong Agreement: 4 September 2021, Assam. Over 1,000 armed cadres gave up arms.
• UNLF Peace Agreement: 29 November 2023. The first valley-based armed group of Manipur to agree to give up violence and respect the Constitution.
• ULFA Memorandum of Settlement: 29 December 2023, signed by the Centre, the Assam government and the pro-talks faction of ULFA. The group agreed to disband.
• NLFT and ATTF agreement: 4 September 2024, Tripura. Over 900 cadres laid down arms.

The Myanmar border factor

India and Myanmar share a 1,643 km border. It touches Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. For decades, a Free Movement Regime (FMR) let people living near the border cross up to 16 km without a visa, because tribes on both sides are related. Armed groups also misused this openness to move people, arms and drugs.

In February 2024, the MHA decided to scrap the FMR and fence the whole border. A stricter system with border passes, limited to 10 km and needing identity and biometric checks, followed in December 2024.

India's position today

The government's view is that violence in the region has fallen sharply over the last decade because of peace accords, surrenders and better roads and connectivity. This is also why AFSPA has been lifted from Tripura (2015), Meghalaya (2018) and most of Assam. However, Manipur saw President's Rule from 13 February 2025 to 4 February 2026 because of the ethnic conflict, and AFSPA continues in several border areas.

Commonly confused concepts

• Insurgency vs terrorism: Insurgents usually have local support and a political goal (land, autonomy or independence) and fight the state for control of an area. Terrorism aims to spread fear, often by attacking ordinary people. In practice, one group can use both methods.
• Ceasefire vs Suspension of Operations vs peace accord: A ceasefire (used with Naga groups) is a pause in fighting while talks go on. Suspension of Operations (used with Kuki groups) is a similar pause, with tighter written rules like cadres staying in camps. A peace accord or MoS is the final deal that ends the conflict.
• Framework Agreement vs final accord: The 2015 Naga Framework Agreement only lays down the broad outline for talks. It is not the final settlement.
• Sixth Schedule vs Article 371A: The Sixth Schedule creates autonomous district councils for tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. Article 371A is a special provision only for Nagaland, protecting Naga customs and land.

Issues, criticism and the way forward

• Incomplete accords: Some groups sign, but breakaway factions keep fighting. The Naga talks have gone on for decades without a final deal.
• Overlapping demands: One group's homeland often includes land claimed by another group or state. "Nagalim" clashes with the borders of Manipur, Assam and Arunachal.
• Human rights concerns: Long use of AFSPA has led to complaints of excesses. A widely reported case is the Oting incident in Mon district, Nagaland (December 2021), where civilians were killed in a failed Army operation.
• Ethnic divides: Manipur's conflict shows that fights between communities can be as serious as fights against the state.
• Way forward suggested by experts: Keep talks open with all groups, honour promises made in accords on time, give real power to local councils, fence and manage the Myanmar border with care for tribes living on both sides, speed up roads, jobs and education, and slowly replace AFSPA with normal policing as peace returns.

Concepts to Know

• Insurgency: An armed rebellion by a group against the government, usually to win control of an area or to get independence or self-rule.
• Memorandum of Settlement (MoS): A written agreement between the government and an armed group that ends the conflict. It lists what each side will do.
• Sixth Schedule: A part of the Constitution (under Articles 244(2) and 275(1)) that sets up autonomous district councils with their own law-making powers for tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
• Assam Rifles: The oldest central paramilitary force in India. It guards the India-Myanmar border and does counter-insurgency work in the Northeast. It works under the MHA, but the Army controls its operations.
• Plebiscite: A vote in which all the people of an area decide one important question, such as whether to join a country.
• Cadre: A trained, active member of an armed or political group.