Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC)

Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities, or CBDR-RC, is a basic principle of global climate law. It says that all countries share the duty to protect the Earth's climate, but not all countries must do the same amount. Rich countries polluted the most in the past and have more money and technology, so they should do more and help poorer countries. Developing countries like India must also act, but in line with their own situation and capacity.

Why does it exist?

Think of a housing society where the lift has broken down. Every family uses the lift, so everyone should help fix it. But the families on the top floors used it the most for many years, and some families are much richer. It is fair that they pay a bigger share. The climate problem works the same way.

Since the Industrial Revolution (from the late 1700s), today's rich countries have released most of the carbon dioxide already in the air. Many developing countries still have millions of people who need electricity, roads and jobs. Asking them to cut emissions at the same speed as rich countries would slow their fight against poverty. CBDR-RC tries to make climate action fair.

Where did it come from?

The idea grew over many years of global talks:

• 1987, Montreal Protocol: This treaty to protect the ozone layer gave developing countries (called "Article 5 Parties") ten extra years to meet each target. It was an early working example of differentiation.
• 1992, Rio Earth Summit: Principle 7 of the Rio Declaration said that, because countries contributed differently to damaging the environment, "States have common but differentiated responsibilities".
• 1992, UNFCCC: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change put the principle into a treaty. Article 3.1 says countries should protect the climate "on the basis of equity and in accordance with their common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities", and that developed countries should take the lead.
• 1997, Kyoto Protocol: Only rich countries got legally binding targets. In the first period (2008–2012), 37 industrialised countries and the European Community agreed to cut emissions by an average of 5% below 1990 levels. Developing countries, including India, had no binding cuts.
• 2014, Lima (COP20): Countries added the words "in the light of different national circumstances". This meant the line between rich and poor countries would no longer be fixed forever.
• 2015, Paris Agreement: Article 2.2 says the agreement will reflect "equity and the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the light of different national circumstances".

How does it work in practice?

Under the UNFCCC, countries were put in groups.

• Annex I: industrialised countries and "economies in transition" (such as Russia and some East European countries). They were expected to lead in cutting emissions.
• Annex II: the richer members of Annex I (the OECD members). They must also give money and technology to developing countries.
• Non-Annex I: mostly developing countries, including India and China. They report their emissions but had no binding cuts under Kyoto.

The Paris Agreement changed the method. Now every country sets its own climate targets, called Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). Differentiation now happens because each country chooses a target that suits its own circumstances. Rich countries are still expected to set economy-wide cuts, and Article 9.1 says developed countries "shall provide financial resources" to help developing countries.

The two halves of the name

Students should understand both parts:

• "Common but differentiated responsibilities" (CBDR): This is about history and fairness. Those who caused more of the problem should carry more of the burden.
• "Respective capabilities" (RC): This is about ability. Those with more money, technology and skills can and should do more.

India's position and Indian examples

India has always treated CBDR-RC as a core principle in climate talks.

• India's per person carbon dioxide emissions were about 2.2 tonnes in 2024, less than half the world average of about 4.8 tonnes (as of 2024 data). India is the third-largest emitter in total, but mainly because of its large population.
• India uses CBDR-RC to argue that developed countries must deliver climate finance and technology, and must reach net zero well before developing countries. India itself has a net-zero target of 2070.
• India, along with Brazil, South Africa and China (the BASIC group), has argued that unilateral trade measures like the EU's CBAM go against CBDR-RC. The argument is that such measures put the cost of climate action on developing countries' exporters.
• The EU's CBAM moved from a reporting-only phase (2023 to 2025) to its full, or "definitive", phase on 1 January 2026. It covers imports of cement, iron and steel, aluminium, fertilisers, electricity and hydrogen.
• In 2026, under India's chairship, BRICS also opposed CBAM. The New Delhi Declaration of the 18th BRICS Summit (September 2026) rejected "unilateral, punitive, discriminatory and protectionist measures" and named CBAM.
• India links this to UNFCCC Article 3.5, which says climate measures, "including unilateral ones", should not become "a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade".

Commonly confused concepts

• CBDR vs CBDR-RC: CBDR is the older, shorter form (Rio Principle 7). CBDR-RC adds "respective capabilities" and is the full form used in UNFCCC Article 3.1 and Paris Article 2.2.
• Kyoto approach vs Paris approach: Kyoto used a fixed list (only Annex I countries had binding targets). Paris uses self-differentiation (every country sets its own NDC).
• Annex I vs Annex II: Annex I countries were expected to lead in cutting emissions. Annex II is a smaller group inside Annex I that also has to provide finance. Russia is in Annex I but not in Annex II.
• Equity vs equality: Equality means everyone does the same. Equity means everyone does a fair share based on their situation. CBDR-RC is based on equity.
• "Polluter pays" principle vs CBDR-RC: "Polluter pays" (Rio Principle 16) says the one causing pollution should bear its cost. CBDR-RC is about how global duties are shared among countries, based on both past emissions and capacity.

Issues, criticism and the way forward

• The world has changed since 1992. Some developed countries argue that big emerging economies like China and India now emit a lot and should take on bigger duties. The "different national circumstances" wording at Lima and Paris came from this debate.
• Money promises not kept. Developing countries point out that the old promise of USD 100 billion a year in climate finance by 2020 was met late. At COP29 in Baku (November 2024), countries agreed a new target called the New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG). Under it, developed countries take the lead in raising at least USD 300 billion a year for developing countries by 2035. The decision also calls on all sources, public and private, to scale this up to USD 1.3 trillion a year by 2035. India has argued that this new goal is too small and does not properly follow Article 9.1.
• Trade measures as a new pressure. Tools like CBAM can make developing-country exporters pay carbon prices set by rich countries. Critics say this bypasses CBDR-RC. The EU says CBAM treats all imports equally and only matches what its own firms pay.
• Way forward: Experts suggest stronger finance and technology transfer, counting a country's own carbon taxes or efforts when applying border measures, support for small firms to measure and report emissions, and settling climate-trade disputes through talks under both the UNFCCC and the WTO.

Concepts to Know

• UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change): The main global treaty on climate change, adopted in 1992 at Rio. Its yearly meeting of all member countries is called the COP (Conference of the Parties).
• Emissions: Gases like carbon dioxide released into the air, mostly by burning coal, oil and gas. They trap heat and warm the planet.
• Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC): A climate plan that each country writes for itself under the Paris Agreement, saying how much it will cut emissions or slow their growth.
• Net zero: When a country removes as much greenhouse gas from the air (through forests or technology) as it releases, so its total addition becomes zero.
• Climate finance: Money given, mostly by rich countries, to help poorer countries cut emissions and adapt to climate impacts like floods and heatwaves.
• Unilateral measure: A step taken by one country (or bloc) alone, without the agreement of others.
• CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism): An EU charge on certain imports, based on the carbon released while making them. It aims to make importers pay the same carbon price that EU firms pay.
• BRICS: A group of major emerging economies, started by Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa, and later joined by more countries.
• OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development): A group of mostly rich, industrialised countries.