Two-State Solution

The two-state solution is a proposal to end the Israel-Palestine conflict by creating two separate countries side by side: Israel and an independent State of Palestine. Each would have its own secure, recognised borders. It is the solution supported by the United Nations and by most countries, including India. But after many decades of talks, a Palestinian state with full control of its land has still not come into being.

Why does it exist?

Two peoples, Jews and Palestinian Arabs, claim the same small piece of land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. Both have deep historical and religious ties to it, especially to Jerusalem. The two-state idea tries to share the land, so both peoples can have self-determination (the right to govern themselves) and live in peace.

Where did it come from?

• 1917: Britain's Balfour Declaration supported a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine.
• 1922: The League of Nations gave Britain a Mandate (the right to govern) over Palestine.
• 1947: The UN General Assembly passed Resolution 181, the Partition Plan, on 29 November 1947. It proposed a Jewish state, an Arab state and a special international status for Jerusalem. Jewish leaders accepted it; Arab leaders rejected it.
• 1948: Israel declared independence on 14 May 1948. A war followed, and hundreds of thousands of Palestinians were displaced; Palestinians call this the Nakba ("catastrophe").
• 1967: In the Six-Day War, Israel took control of the West Bank, East Jerusalem, Gaza, the Golan Heights and the Sinai. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 242 (22 November 1967), adopted unanimously. It set out the "land for peace" principle: Israel withdraws from occupied land, and in return all states in the region recognise each other's right to live in peace.

How did the peace process develop?

• Oslo Accords (1993 and 1995): For the first time, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) recognised each other. The Palestinian Authority (PA) was set up to run parts of the West Bank and Gaza. Oslo II (1995) divided the West Bank into three areas as a temporary step:
• Area A (about 18%): The PA controls both civil matters and security.
• Area B (about 22%): The PA controls civil matters; Israel controls security.
• Area C (about 60%): Israel keeps full control.
• The hard "final status" issues were left for later: borders, Jerusalem, refugees, settlements and security. Later talks, such as Camp David in 2000, failed to settle them.
• 2012: The UN General Assembly passed Resolution 67/19, making Palestine a non-member observer State at the UN (138 votes in favour, 9 against, 41 abstentions). This is the same status as the Holy See (Vatican).

What does international law say?

UN resolutions treat the West Bank, East Jerusalem and Gaza as occupied territory. On 19 July 2024, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) gave an advisory opinion (legal advice, not a binding judgment) that Israel's continued presence in the Occupied Palestinian Territory is unlawful and should end as quickly as possible. Israel rejected the opinion.

How many countries recognise Palestine?

In May 2024, the UN General Assembly voted 143 to 9 (with 25 abstentions) that Palestine qualifies for full UN membership and asked the Security Council to reconsider its application. Full membership needs a Security Council recommendation, where a permanent member can use a veto. In September 2025, several Western countries, including the UK, France, Canada and Australia, recognised the State of Palestine.

As of late 2025, more than 150 of the 193 UN members recognise it. On 12 September 2025, the General Assembly endorsed the "New York Declaration" on the two-state solution, with 142 votes in favour, 10 against and 12 abstentions.

India's position

India's policy has balanced support for the Palestinian cause with growing ties with Israel:

• India voted against the 1947 partition plan. It had supported a single federal state instead.
• India recognised Israel in 1950, but set up full diplomatic relations only on 29 January 1992.
• India was the first non-Arab country to recognise the PLO as the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people (1974). It recognised the State of Palestine on 18 November 1988.
• India's stated position is support for a negotiated two-state solution: a sovereign, independent and viable State of Palestine living side by side in peace with Israel, within secure and recognised borders.
• India condemns terrorism, calls for protecting civilians, and supports humanitarian aid, including contributions to UNRWA (the UN agency for Palestine refugees).
• India voted in favour of the May 2024 General Assembly resolution on Palestine's UN membership and the September 2025 New York Declaration. You can think of India's approach as "de-hyphenation": it deals with Israel and with Palestine as two separate relationships, each on its own merits.

Commonly confused concepts

• Two-state vs one-state solution: The two-state solution means two separate countries. A one-state solution means one shared country for both peoples, which raises questions about equal rights and identity.
• Palestinian Authority vs PLO vs Hamas: The PLO (founded 1964) represents Palestinians internationally and signed the Oslo Accords. The Palestinian Authority is the government body created by Oslo; it runs parts of the West Bank. Hamas is a separate armed group that took control of Gaza in 2007 and does not accept the Oslo framework.
• UNGA vs UNSC resolutions: General Assembly resolutions (like 181 and 67/19) show world opinion but are not binding. Security Council resolutions (like 242) carry more legal weight, and the five permanent members have a veto.
• Recognition vs UN membership: A country can recognise Palestine on its own. Becoming a full UN member needs a Security Council recommendation and a two-thirds vote in the General Assembly.

Issues, criticism and the way forward

• Settlements: Israeli settlements in the West Bank and East Jerusalem keep growing, which many say leaves less land for a Palestinian state. UN Security Council Resolution 2334 (2016) called them a violation of international law. Israel disputes this view.
• Security: Israel says a Palestinian state must not become a base for attacks, especially after the Hamas attack of 7 October 2023.
• Palestinian division: The split between the Palestinian Authority in the West Bank and Hamas in Gaza makes it hard to have one Palestinian partner for talks.
• Jerusalem and refugees: Both sides claim Jerusalem as their capital, and millions of Palestinian refugees and their descendants seek a right of return.
• Humanitarian crisis: The war in Gaza since October 2023 caused massive loss of life and destruction, adding urgency to calls for a lasting settlement.
• Way forward: The UN and most countries back direct negotiations on all final status issues, based on UN resolutions and the pre-1967 lines with agreed land swaps, plus large-scale help to rebuild Gaza.

Concepts to Know

• Self-determination: The right of a people to choose their own government and political future.
• Occupied territory: Land controlled by the army of another country without that land becoming legally part of the controlling country.
• Settlement: A community built by Israeli citizens on land Israel captured in 1967.
• Advisory opinion: Legal advice given by the ICJ when a UN body asks for it. It carries legal and moral weight but is not binding like a court judgment.
• Veto: The power of any of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (the US, UK, France, Russia and China) to block a decision alone.