Greenland

Greenland is the world's largest island. It lies in the far north of the Atlantic Ocean, between North America and Europe, and most of it is inside the Arctic Circle. It is not an independent country. It is a self-governing territory inside the Kingdom of Denmark: Greenland runs most of its own affairs, but Denmark still handles its defence and foreign policy.

Where is it and what does it look like?

Geographically, Greenland is part of the North American continent. It sits north-east of Canada. Politically, though, it has been linked to Europe through Denmark for about 300 years. Its total area is about 2.16 million square kilometres. That is roughly two-thirds the size of India. Almost 80% of the land is covered by a thick ice sheet. So people live only along the ice-free coasts, mostly in the south-west.

• Population: about 56,000 people (56,583 in 2022). This makes it the least densely populated territory in the world.
• Capital: Nuuk, on the south-west coast. About 20,000 people live there.
• People: Most Greenlanders are Inuit, the Indigenous people of the Arctic.
• Language: Greenlandic (Kalaallisut) is the only official language.

The Greenland ice sheet

After Antarctica, the Greenland ice sheet is the second-largest body of ice on Earth. When this ice melts, the water flows into the ocean and raises the sea level everywhere, including along India's long coastline. That is why scientists watch Greenland's melting closely. The Arctic region as a whole has warmed nearly four times faster than the global average since 1979, according to a 2022 study.

How did Greenland come under Denmark?

Norse (Viking) settlers lived in Greenland in medieval times, but their settlements disappeared. The modern link began in 1721, when a Danish-Norwegian missionary named Hans Egede landed there. After this, Greenland became a Danish colony. Its journey from colony to self-rule happened in steps:

1. 1721 to 1953: Greenland was a Danish colony.
2. 1953: Denmark changed its constitution. Greenland stopped being a colony and became an equal part of the Kingdom, called the County of Greenland. It got seats in the Danish Parliament. Denmark told the United Nations that Greenland's colonial status had ended.
3. 1979: The Home Rule Act gave Greenland its own parliament and government for local matters.
4. 1985: Greenland left the European Economic Community (the group that later became the European Union), mainly to control its own fishing waters. Denmark stayed in. Greenland is now an "Overseas Country and Territory" linked to the EU.
5. 21 June 2009: The Act on Greenland Self-Government came into force. It replaced Home Rule and gave Greenland much more power.

What does the Self-Government Act, 2009 do?

You can think of Greenland like a grown-up child living in the family house. It manages its own room, money and daily life, but the parent still handles the house's security and its dealings with neighbours.

• Greenland can take control of most areas one by one: health, education, fisheries, mineral resources, police and more.
• Greenland earns money from its own mineral and oil resources. As this income grows, the yearly grant (block grant) from Denmark is reduced.
• Foreign policy, defence, security, citizenship and monetary policy stay with Denmark. These cannot be handed over under the Act.
• The right to independence: The Act recognises that the people of Greenland can decide to become independent. If they choose this, Greenland and Denmark must negotiate. The final agreement needs approval from Greenland's parliament (Inatsisartut), a referendum in Greenland, and consent from Denmark's parliament (Folketing).
• Greenland elects two members to the Danish Parliament.

Why is Greenland so important strategically?

Its location, its minerals and its opening sea lanes make it very valuable.

• Shortest path between America and Russia: The shortest flight path for missiles between North America and Russia passes over the Arctic and Greenland. So radar in Greenland gives early warning of missile attacks.
• The GIUK Gap: The sea gap between Greenland, Iceland and the United Kingdom is a key passage between the Arctic and the North Atlantic. Russian submarines from the Arctic must pass through it to reach the Atlantic. During the Cold War, NATO watched this gap closely, and it has become important again.
• Minerals: Greenland has large deposits of rare earth elements (a group of 17 metals used in electric vehicles, wind turbines, phones and missiles). Two of the world's biggest rare earth deposits, Kvanefjeld and Tanbreez, are in southern Greenland. China controls most of the world's rare earth processing today, so other countries want new sources.
• New sea routes: As Arctic ice melts, sea routes across the top of the world may open for longer each year. These could cut shipping distances between Asia, Europe and North America.

The US military link

The US has had a military interest in Greenland for a long time.

• During the Second World War, after Germany occupied Denmark, the US took responsibility for Greenland's defence in 1941 and built bases there, including Bluie West One at Narsarsuaq.
• In 1946, the US offered to buy Greenland for $100 million. Denmark refused.
• The 1951 Defence Agreement between the US and Denmark allowed the US to build and run bases in Greenland. It was updated in 2004.
• The biggest base was Thule Air Base in the north-west, built from 1951. In April 2023 it was renamed Pituffik Space Base, a Greenlandic name. It is run by the US Space Force. It tracks missiles and objects in space. Until the 2026 deal, it was the only US base in Greenland.
• The US again showed interest in buying Greenland in 2019, and pushed strongly for control of it in 2025 and 2026. Both Denmark and Greenland said Greenland was not for sale.

Commonly confused concepts

• Greenland vs Iceland: Iceland is a fully independent country and a founding member of NATO (1949). Greenland is a self-governing part of Denmark. Despite the names, Greenland is mostly ice, while Iceland is greener in many places.
• Home Rule (1979) vs Self-Government (2009): Home Rule gave limited local powers. Self-Government gave many more powers, control over natural resources, and a clear legal path to independence.
• Greenland vs the Faroe Islands: Both are self-governing parts of the Danish Realm. The Faroe Islands lie in the North Atlantic between Scotland and Iceland. Neither is in the EU.
• Arctic vs Antarctic: The Arctic is an ocean surrounded by land (it has countries and people). Antarctica is land surrounded by ocean, and it is governed by the Antarctic Treaty (1959), which bans military activity there. There is no such single treaty for the Arctic.
• Greenland in NATO: Greenland is covered by NATO because Denmark is a NATO member. It is not a separate member.

Issues, criticism and the way forward

• Sovereignty and self-determination: Greenlanders have repeatedly said that their future must be decided by them. Outside pressure to buy or control the island raised questions about the right of peoples to decide their own status, which is a principle of the UN Charter.
• Independence and money: Many Greenlanders want independence one day. But Greenland still depends heavily on Denmark's yearly grant. Mining income could reduce this dependence, but mining raises environmental worries, including over uranium at Kvanefjeld.
• Climate change: Melting ice threatens the Inuit way of life (hunting, fishing, travel on sea ice). It also raises global sea levels.
• Militarisation: More bases and big-power competition could turn a region known for peaceful cooperation into a zone of rivalry. Supporters argue that a stronger Western presence deters Russia and China. Critics worry it increases tension.
• Way forward: Experts suggest decisions that respect Greenlanders' wishes, careful rules for mining, and keeping the Arctic a region of low tension through cooperation.

Concepts to Know

• Sovereignty: The full legal right of a state to rule a territory. A country with sovereignty over a land makes the final decisions about it.
• Self-governing territory: A region that runs its own daily affairs through its own parliament, but is still legally part of another country.
• Referendum: A vote in which all the people directly decide on a single big question, like "Should we become independent?"
• Rare earth elements: A group of 17 metals that are needed in small amounts for modern technology such as magnets in electric motors, phones and defence equipment.
• Ice sheet: A huge, thick layer of ice that covers a very large land area for thousands of years. Only Greenland and Antarctica have ice sheets today.
• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): A military alliance, formed in 1949, of countries in North America and Europe that promise to defend each other if attacked.
• Chokepoint: A narrow passage on a trade or military route. Whoever controls it can block or watch traffic.