Confidence-Building Measures (CBMs) on the India-China Border

Confidence-building measures, or CBMs, are agreed rules and habits that two rival countries follow so that small incidents on the border do not turn into fights or war. They include promises not to fire, limits on troops and aircraft near the border, regular meetings and hotlines between commanders. India and China built a large set of such CBMs from 1993 onwards. These CBMs kept the LAC free of deaths for decades, until the clash of 2020.

Why do India and China need CBMs?

The two countries fought a war in 1962 and still disagree on where the border lies. Soldiers of both sides patrol the same areas, so they meet often. Without clear rules, one wrong move could lead to shooting. Think of two neighbours who disagree about where their land ends. Until a court decides, they can agree "no one builds a wall, no one brings a stick, and we talk to each other first". CBMs work the same way while the boundary question is being settled.

Where did they come from?

After the 1962 war, relations stayed frozen for years. Ambassadors were exchanged again in 1976. Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi's visit to China in December 1988 was a turning point. The two sides agreed to keep the border peaceful while talking about a final settlement, and they set up a Joint Working Group on the boundary question. This approach, "keep peace now, settle the boundary later", led to the agreements listed below.

The main agreements, step by step

1. 1993 Agreement on the Maintenance of Peace and Tranquillity along the LAC (signed in Beijing, 7 September 1993): Both sides promised to respect the LAC until the boundary is settled, and to keep their forces near it at a minimum level. This was the first agreement to use the term LAC officially.
2. 1996 Agreement on Confidence-Building Measures in the Military Field along the LAC (signed in New Delhi, 29 November 1996): Neither side will use its military capability against the other. Neither side will open fire, conduct blasts or hunt with guns or explosives within 2 km of the LAC (routine firing at small-arms ranges is allowed). Combat aircraft will not fly within 10 km of the LAC, except with advance notice. If soldiers cross the LAC by mistake and are warned, they must go back.
3. 2003: Special Representatives (SR) mechanism: During Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's visit to China in June 2003, each side agreed to appoint a Special Representative to work out a framework for a boundary settlement. India's SR is the National Security Adviser; China's SR has been a senior leader on foreign affairs.
4. 2005 Agreement on the Political Parameters and Guiding Principles for the Settlement of the India-China Boundary Question (11 April 2005): It set the broad rules for a final deal. One important principle is that settled populations in border areas will be taken into account. The same year, a Protocol on modalities (practical steps) to carry out the 1996 CBMs was signed.
5. 2012: Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination on India-China Border Affairs (WMCC), January 2012: A regular meeting of foreign ministry officials of both sides to exchange information and handle border issues.
6. 2013 Border Defence Cooperation Agreement (BDCA), 23 October 2013: It added more steps, such as not tailing (following) the other side's patrols and setting up hotlines between military commands.

How do the CBMs work on the ground?

• Border Personnel Meetings (BPMs): Local commanders meet at fixed points to solve local issues and hold ceremonial meetings on national days. There are five such points: Daulat Beg Oldi and Chushul in Ladakh, Nathu La in Sikkim, and Kibithu and Bum La in Arunachal Pradesh.
• Flag meetings and hotlines: Commanders can meet or call each other quickly when patrols face off.
• Corps Commander-level talks: Started after 2020 between senior army generals at the Chushul-Moldo meeting point. The 21st round was held on 19 February 2024.
• WMCC and SR talks: Diplomats and the Special Representatives meet regularly to manage the bigger picture.

Why did the CBMs fail in 2020?

The CBMs depend on both sides keeping troop numbers low near the LAC. In 2020, large Chinese troop build-ups near the LAC went against the spirit of the 1993 and 1996 agreements, in India's view. The rule against using firearms within 2 km also meant that the Galwan clash was fought with rods, stones and clubs, not guns. After Galwan, India allowed field commanders to permit firearms in extraordinary situations. Analysts say the CBMs prevented gunfire, but could not prevent a deadly clash.

What has happened since 2024?

After the October 2024 agreement on Depsang and Demchok, the SR talks resumed. The 23rd round was held in Beijing in December 2024. At the 24th round in New Delhi on 19 August 2025, the two sides agreed to:

• set up an Expert Group under the WMCC to explore an "early harvest" in boundary delimitation (settling the line first in easier sectors)
• set up a Working Group under the WMCC on border management
• create new general-level military mechanisms for the eastern and middle sectors, in addition to the one in the western sector

The 25th round was held in Beijing on 25 August 2026, and the next round is to be held in India in 2027.

India's position

India's stated view is that peace in the border areas is the base of the relationship, and that the CBMs must be followed in letter and spirit. India first wants full disengagement and then de-escalation, followed by normal ties in trade, flights and people-to-people links.

Commonly confused concepts

• CBMs vs boundary settlement: CBMs only manage the border peacefully. They do not decide where the border is. A boundary settlement is the final legal agreement on the line.
• Delimitation vs demarcation: Delimitation means agreeing on the boundary on paper and maps. Demarcation means marking it on the ground with pillars. Both are needed for a full international border.
• SR talks vs WMCC vs Corps Commander talks: SR talks are at the top political level and deal with the final settlement. The WMCC is at the level of foreign ministry officials and handles day-to-day border issues. Corps Commander talks are between army generals and deal with troops on the ground.
• 1993 agreement vs 1996 agreement: The 1993 agreement sets the general promise of peace along the LAC. The 1996 agreement adds specific military rules, like the 2 km no-fire zone and the 10 km no-fly zone for combat aircraft.

Issues, criticism and the way forward

• Trust deficit: Critics point out that the 2020 events showed agreements can be ignored when one side changes its plans. Supporters of CBMs argue that they still helped both sides end the standoff through talks.
• Unclear LAC: CBMs work best when both sides know where the line is. Without a clear LAC, even honest patrols can cross what the other side sees as its land.
• Early harvest debate: India earlier preferred a full package settlement, not sector by sector. Agreeing to explore an early harvest is seen by some as a practical step, while others worry that easier sectors may be settled while the hard western sector stays open.
• Way forward: Experts suggest updating CBMs for new technology such as drones, keeping talks regular at all levels, clarifying the LAC, and pairing diplomacy with strong infrastructure and deterrence.

Concepts to Know

• Peace and tranquillity: The official phrase India and China use for a calm border with no clashes or threats.
• Package solution: A single final deal covering the whole boundary in all sectors together, where each side may give up something in one sector to gain in another.
• Early harvest: Settling the easier parts of a problem first, before the harder parts, to build trust.
• National Security Adviser (NSA): The top adviser to the Prime Minister on security matters. India's NSA serves as its Special Representative for the boundary talks.